What is the cognitive approach? >it is the study of internal mental processes >it is an approach that developed in the 1960s, as a response to Behaviourist's who failed to examine mental processes >they created a metaphor describing mental processes in relation to computer systems Assumptions made by the cognitive approach: -internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically >they have studied areas that behaviourists failed to look at -main areas of thought are around MEMORY, PERCEPTION and THINKING (they cannot be observed) The role of scheme in the cognitive approach: - cognitive processing (the way we interpret information) can often be affected by something called a 'schema' - a schema is a mental framework, that helps us to interpret the information that enters our cognitive system (thinking) - it is a framework that tells us what to do with it >we develop a schema around something through previous experience, which we then use to help us act appropriately to something -For example: we have a schema of a chair = it has 4 legs and we sit on it > this is information that we have learnt through experience, allowing us to now act appropriately when faced with the object -Babies are born with simple motor schemas > these help with the initial grasping of objects etc., however as we grow older our schema develops as we experience more and more things everyday > schemas therefore help us to deal with daily life and not become overwhelmed by things Theoretical and computer models in the cognitive approach: > we study the cognitive approach through theoretical models >one important model is the information processing approach: in this approach we have the multi-store model of memory & the working memory model (these are the most important two to learn!) >BOTH OF THESE MODELS LOOK AT HOW OUR MEMORIES WORK, IN REMEMBERING INFORMATION > (so, remembering our experiences that make up our scheme >MAKE THE LINK HERE!!) The Multi-Store Model: Outlined > - Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrins (1968, 1979) -representation of how memory works in terms of three stores: sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory - it also looks at how information goes from one to the next, and thus how information is remembered and also forgotten What the model says: Stimulus from the environment (Something to trigger the info) >>>>>Sensory register>>>>>Short-term memory store>>>>>Long-term memory store Lets explain this..... Sensory register: A stimulus from the environment (e.g a name) will pass into the first stage, along with lots of other quick things e.g. sounds, lights = The Sensory Register So we can see that the sensory register, is a store for all our senses! But in the model the stage is split into two parts for our senses >>> 1) Iconic memory > for visual coding and the second is the Ehoic memory > for sound and auditory - the material at this stage only lasts very briefly (the duration is less than half a second) -this stage has a high capacity (for example, over one hundred million cells in one eye, each storing data) -Very little passes into the memory, but it does it you pay ATTENTION! Paying attention allows this information to pass into the short-term memory store Short-term memory (STM) -limited capacity store, only remembers a certain number of things before they are forgotten -capacity is on average between 5 and 9> most common is 7 and then plus or minus 2 regarding the person (7 +/- 2) -coded acoustically -lasts about 30 seconds unless we REHEARSE IT! > this is when we repeat it to ourselves over and over again > if we do this it passes into our long-term memory Long-term memory (LTM) -potentially where information is stored permanently, when it has been rehearsed for a prolonged time =capacity is unlimited -although it is stored long term, if we want to recall it and think about it we must follow the process of retrieval so it goes back into our short-term memory (a bit like remembering something you do know) REMEBER TO FIND EVALUATIVE POINTS FOR THIS THEORY > SUPPORTING EVIDENCE/POSITIVES/DISADVANTAGES/CRTICAL THEORIES The Working Memory Model ( Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch 1974) >one of the criticisms of the multi-store model is that it doesn't account for divisions within the 3 stages >this model looks at the subdivisions within the Short-term store >it is a representation of the short-term store >it says the STM is dynamic processor of different types of information, using sub-units coordinated by a central decision making system >looks at how the STM works and is organised > to store information temporarily What the theory outlines: > the model contains 4 main components > all different in regards to capacity and coding 1) Central Executive -this component is what the information first meets, it is the component that processes the information and sends it to the correct component (the other 3 outlined below) -it has very limited processing capacity 2) Phonological Loop -deals with auditory information -coding is acoustic -it is divided into 2 main parts >The Phonological store = this stores the words you hear >The articulatory process - allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating the sounds to keep them in the working memory whilst they are needed) -capacity is 2 secons 3) Visuo-spatial background -stores visual information when required for example, if you are asked to work out how many windows are on your house, you visualise it -limited capacity -it is divided into 2 main parts >The Visual Cache = stores visual data >The Inner Scribe - records the arrangement of objects in the visual field 4) Episodic Buffer -added to the model in 2000 -temporary store for information -integrating the visual, spatial and verbal information REMEBER TO EVALUTE THE STUDY!!!
Other theories within the cognitive approach to be mindful of: Types of long-term memory (Endel Tulving 1985) > argues that there are three types of long term memory (1. Episodic memory 2. Semantic memory 3. Procedural memory) Episodic memory = ability to recall events from our lives (bit like a diary!) e.g. visit to a dentist or where you went for breakfast! They are complex memories that make you think and they ate time stamped! They also include several elements as they are an event e.g. time/where/smell/who with. Finally, you have to make a conscious effort to recall the event - you are aware that you are trying to remember something Semantic memory - knowledge of the world >facts ( a bit like an encyclopaedia) e.g. knowing how to apply for university. These memories are not time stamped, and we don usually remember where we fist remembered them, they are just things we take for granted knowing Procedural memory - memory for actions, skills or basically anything we know how to do. We can recall these things without conscious awareness most of the time (we don't have to think how to do them) For example, driving a car ...it becomes second nature to us! These skills are hard to explain to someone else, as we don't really think about them when we are doing them. REMEMBER TO EVALUATE!!!!
Interference theory > a theory usually for forgetting in the long-term memory It happens w0hen two pieces of information conflict with one another > creating the forgetting. Interference happens in two forms: 1) Proactive interference = (PI) happens when an older memory interferes with a newer one. For example, a teacher has learnt so many names in the past year, she has trouble learning a new classes names 2) Retroactive interference - (RI) happens when a newer memory interferes with the older one. For example, a teacher learned so many names this year, she has trouble remembering last years THESE ARE JUST TWO OPPOSTIE WAYS OF HOW INTERFERING CAN OCCUR! (there is also a further theory within this by McGeoch and McDonald - who studies effects of interference when the two pieces of information were more different - as the interference theory shows that memories of similar relevance create a bigger interference and problem REMEMBER TO EVALUATE!!!
Retrieval failure theory : > this idea links to why we may struggle to retrieve information we have stored in our memory, and links the problem to not having sufficient cues at the time of remembering. If we don't have a cue to prompt us when we try to remember, we struggle to remember information. For example the cue 'STM' may trigger lots of information about short-term memory. Studies linking to retrieval failure: Endel Tulving (1983) - Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP) - in order to retrieve info, we need a cue present at the time we learn the new material Duncan Godden and Alan Baddeley (1975) - we recall information better in the condition that we learnt it (the study looking at remembering information on land or underwater.... so this created 4 conditions to research into 1) learn underwater - recall underwater 2) learn on land - recall on land 3) learn underwater - recall on land 4) learn on land - recall underwater ...FINDINGS: ACCURATE RECALL WAS 40 PERRCENT LOWER WHEN THE CONDITIONS DIDNT MATCH UP (thus the cue was where it was learnt!!!!!)
How memory research can be applied to the reliability of eye witness testimony Eye witness testimony (Loftus and Palmer 1974) - looked at factors that affect recalling information after experiencing an incident > Loftus and Palmer looked at the effects of a leading question and verbs used within the question, differentiating what people had said to seen. E.g. Smash = made people recall broken glass but those who heard hit did not recall broken glass Other studies relating to eye-witness testimony include: Johnson and Scott (1976) - looking at anxiety as a factor Yuille and Cutshall (1986) - anxiety has a positive effect on recall
EVALUATION OF THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO PSYCHOLOGY: > Scientific and objective methods: -uses highly controlled and rigorous procedures -use of lab experiments to provide reliability -established a credible scientific basis >Machine Reductionism: -criticised for the computer system analogy >ignores human emotions and feelings >Application to everyday life: -lacks external validity
Pedagogy: -memory test -provide students with a sheet with missing information, ask students to take notes and fill in the gaps on the sheet as i recall the theory (good practice for university and note taking techniques) -in pairs ask students to explain theories to each other > one recall the MSM and the other recall WMM -eye witness testimony - create a mini experiment for students to take part in, and afterwards ask students what they feel the purpose was and what is going on? (Refer to other Cognitive page for more teaching ideas and resources) AQA Psychology for A level 2015 - useful text book with questions/quizzes/end of topic tests/case studies for students to look at in regards to the Cognitive approach http://www.simplypsychology.org/a-level-psychology.html