Models of memory: Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) proposed the Multi-store model: -linear model showing how information flows through the processes of memory -the model also looks at how information is forgotten -memory is a flow of information through a system, with 3 different stages that information passes through in a linear system (sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory) The process: -External stimuli (something that triggers an activity or reaction) enters the sensory memory in an uncoded form, where it is acknowledged for only a brief amount of time -For this information to pass onto the next stage within the system (short term memory) attention is required -Duration = The short term memory stores approximately 7 +/-2 items in an acoustic code (we remember things by sound) for approximately 15-30 seconds (easy to forget things at this stage) -For things to be remembered they must be repeated or rehearsed =Memories in the short term memory are lost due to new information pushing through or because the information fades away -But if memory is well rehearsed it is able to pass on to the stage of long term memory -Capacity = In long term memory an unlimited amount of information can be kept through semantic encoding (associating meaning to something) -However memory can still decay in long term memory for a number of reasons: information may decay, new information may cause confusion Strengths of the model: -role of rehearsal is representative of everyday life -role of importance shows why people remember some things more than others -separate stores are good as research shows that one store can be damaged without affecting the other Weaknesses of the model: -fails to consider how people use strategies to remember things -it only focuses on the process (does not consider that some things are easier to remember than others) -suggests that rehearsal is the only way to change memory from short term to long term
The working memory model: Baddely & Hitch (1974) -explains the process in short term memory only -uses 3 mains stores within the model 1) The central executive = giving attention to the information from the other two stores and making the decision on what information within these is important (rehearsal occurs between the central executive and the other two stores) 2) The phonological loop = known as the 'inner voice' > holds information in a speech based form but with limited capacity 3) The Visuo- spatial scratchpad = known as the 'inner eye' > spatial and visual coding (The latter two pay attention to information and store it for a short period of time through forms of remembering - the central executive decides whether the information is important or not)
Strengths of the model: -more detailed process of what happens within short term memory -highlights memory is an active process Weaknesses of the model: -only looks at short term memory -only highlights some senses but ignores the rest e.g. smell, taste, touch -very little is known about the decision making activities of the central executive
Memory in everyday life: Eyewitness testimony (EWT) = (legal term) the account someone gives after witnessing an event / it is important in cognitive psychology and human memory Factors affecting eyewitness testimony: Anxiety > 'Clifford and Scott (1978) found that people who saw a film of a violent attack remembered fewer of the 40 items of information about the event than a control group who saw a less stressful version. As witnessing a real crime is probably more stressful than taking part in an experiment, memory accuracy may well be even more affected in real life.' (stress can result in remembering less) Misleading information > Loftus and Palmer (1974) Aim of the experiment: investigate the effect of leading verbs on eye witness accounts of a car crash. All participants watched a film in which two cars crashed in to each other. They were then randomly allocated to one of five groups and asked to answer some questions about the film. Each group had one question that differed slightly over the five conditions of the experiment. Findings: In the ‘smashed’ condition participants gave a significantly higher speed estimate (40.8 mph) compared with the contacted, collided, hit and bumped conditions (31.8, 34.2, 38.1 and 39.3 mph respectively). This showed that the type of question an eyewitness is asked can have a distorting effect on their memory of an incident. In this case the verb used in the question led participants into making a different type of speed estimate. - words can mislead and confuse memory, and lead to witnesses changing their perception on what happened
Age of witness >
Cohen and Faulkner - they showed 70 year olds and 35 year olds a film of a kidnapping then presented them with misleading details before asking them to recall what happened in the film
found that the 70 years olds were more likely to be mislead than the 35 years olds
research would suggest that people of an old age do not have accurate eye witness testimony
Improving accuracy of eye witness testimony: Cognitive interview: The cognitive interview has 4 main stages - 1) Report everything - encouraging witnesses to report everything, even if they do not feel it is relevant can help to increase accuracy 2) Reinstate the context at the time of the event - telling witness to talk about how they felt, the weather, smells, sounds etc. can help a witness to relive the event 3) Change the order in which the event is recalled - recalling events in reverse order, will disrupt memory and ensure accuracy of the story being told 4) Change perspective - adopting the viewpoint of different witnesses
Strategies for memory improvement: - Organisation - categorising to aid memory recall -Mnemonic techniques - e.g. method of loci = used to help remember a list of unrelated words You would think of a route you take regularly and you would then associate the words to locations on the route